A third conception, “politics as compromise and consensus,” “relates not to the arena within which politics is conducted but to the way in which decisions are made. Specifically, politics is seen as a particular means of resolving conflict: that is, by compromise, conciliation and negotiation, rather than through force and naked power.”Yet another option is to think of “politics as power.” This is “both the broadest and the most radical” view because it “sees politics at work in all social activities and in every corner of human existence.” Many experts have noted that one of the central concerns of politics is the distribution of limited resources. “This notion was neatly summed up in the title of Harold Lasswell’s book Politics: Who Gets What, When, How (1936). […] Politics can […] be seen as a struggle over scarce resources, and power can be seen as the means through which this struggle is conducted.” Christina Boswell believes that in recent years, politics has been “as much, or arguably more, about identity and culture” as it has been about material resources. Moreover, traditional political categories have blurred, and distinctions are less clear than they used to be. “Much of our contemporary political debate revolves around issues that are not neatly categorised as left or right, such as the environment, gender and sexual rights, immigration and security.” On a lighter note, David Hubert remembers one of his professors telling him “that politics is everywhere except for heaven and hell and other perfect dictatorships. That may be true. If it is, it requires political scientists to cover considerable ground.” What is democracy? The word ‘democracy’ translates as “the rule (or: power, strength) of/by the people.” The basic concept was developed more than 2,400 years ago in ancient Greece. Most definitions of democracy centre on the aspect of “popular sovereignty – in Abraham Lincoln’s words, ‘government of the people, by the people, for the people’. At its heart is the concept of the population choosing a government through regular, free, and fair elections.” Larry Diamond identifies four key elements of democracy – a “political system for choosing and replacing the government through free and fair elections”; the “active participation of the people, as citizens, in politics and civic life”; the protection “of the human rights of all citizens”; and a “rule of law, in which the laws and procedures apply equally to all citizens.” Citizens in a democratic society “have an obligation to become informed about public issues, to watch carefully how their political leaders and representatives use their powers, and to express their own opinions and interests.” Just as important as these civic duties are certain types of rights that every citizen in a functioning democracy possesses. These include “the right to have [one’s] own beliefs,” and to express these beliefs in speaking and writing; the right “to choose [one’s] own religion and to worship and practice [one’s] religion as [one sees] fit”; the right “to enjoy [one’s] own culture, along with other members of [one’s] group,” regardless of whether that group is a minority or majority; the right to “choose between different sources of news and opinion”; and “the right to associate with other people, and to form and join organizations of [one’s] own choice, including trade unions.” What’s so good about democracy? Most experts agree that democracy “has played a vital role in the story of civilization, helping transform the world from power structures of monarchy, empire, and conquest into popular rule, self-determination, and peaceful co-existence.” The concept of “democratic peace” says “that democratic states never (or almost never) wage war on one another.” Are all democracies the same? No, they are not. There are numerous nominally democratic countries whose citizens do not fully enjoy the rights mentioned above. Although people in the West sometimes assume that “democracy naturally takes the form of liberal democracy […], democracy does not necessarily have to be liberal. Certain nations today have illiberal democracies where voting continues but liberal characteristics, such as an independent judiciary and free press, have been compromised.” In these nations, “harassment of political opponents, censorship or self-censorship in the media, and discrimination against minority ethnic/ religious groups run rampant.” “Defenders of liberal democracy say this actually makes these societies inherently undemocratic, as stripping away liberal guarantees leads to intimidation and coercion by the state, undermining elections.” What’s next? How will things develop from here? Many people fear that “democracy is threatened by various forces around the world. Some question the value of the popular vote when it leads to seismic shifts such as Brexit, and the election of demagogues who threaten liberal values.” 80 Key aspects Strategies Sample task 9 Politics Nur zu Prüfzwecken – Eigentum des Verlags öbv
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